Description: an eye in the sky Communicating with rovers This paper discusses the evolution of different Failure Analysis techniques from one generation of microprocessors to another. Failure analysis (FA) is one of the key competencies in Intel. It enables very rapid achievement of world class manufacturing standards, resulting in excellent microprocessor time-to-market performance. According to Moores law, transistor count doubles as transistor dimensions are reduced in half every 18 months, allowing for more complex microprocessor architecture designs. For example the Intel486DX microprocessor had 1.2 million transistors while the Pentium microprocessor contains 3.1 million transistors. With rapid technological advances such as more complex microprocessor architecture, an increasing number of interconnect layers, and flip-chip packaging technology for products like the Pentium and Pentium II microprocessors, conventional FA techniques, in use since the Intel386DX processor generation, are no longer effective. These conventional techniques require in-depth knowledge of the processors architecture, and they involve exhaustive e-beam probing work, which typically results in very long FA throughput times. This paper provides insight into FA techniques that have been adopted at Intel. It discusses the evolution of software fault isolation techniques based on Design For Testability (DFT) features, and other special FA techniques. In this paper, we will discuss these techniques and show how they are effectively used to produce fast FA support turnaround for both silicon debug and manufacturing. We will also review their technical merits and return on investment, as well as the cost of each technique to Intel. The main focus of this paper is electrical fault isolation techniques, as opposed to physical defect localization techniques such as liquid crystal analysis and emission microscopy.
The objectives of the 4G wireless communication is defined by the 4G working group which includes standard a spectrally efficient system (in bits/s/Hz and bits/s/Hz/site), High network capacity: more simultaneous users per cell, Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks, Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple networks, Interoperability with existing wireless standards, an all IP, packet switched network. Still 4G is not clearly defined or documented anywhere what are the basic requirements to build 4G wireless technology, like 3G is clearly defined in IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications 2000). IMT-Advanced is the closest where some of the 4G requirements can be found. For supporting high data rate and high mobility in fast moving car (60kilometers/hours) or fast moving trains (250 km/hr) and it is predicted that the new potential wireless system will support 100 Mbps on mobility and 1 Gbps approximately on without mobility at lower cost. This potential new wireless system could be developed by 2010. Its characteristics should be like high degree of commonality of design worldwide to provide backward compatibility, compatibility of services within IMT-Advanced and with the fixed networks, high quality, and small terminal suitable for worldwide use, worldwide roaming capability, capability to run high data rate multimedia applications within a wide range of services and terminals.
The parameter outlined by the ITU (International Telecommunication Union) which required in order to meet the targeted data rate and QoS (Quality of service) as already discussed above in the main objective of 4G wireless technology are going to be based on OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) modulation with MIMO (multiple inputs, multiple outputs) and other smart antenna enhancements. 4G is also called network of networks like low network latency, integration of mobile broadband heterogeneous network, smooth sharing of networks, seamless connection during handoff from one cell to another cell, providing mobile subscriber with always-best-connected, and high QoS broadband experience.
